Lessons Observed, Not Yet Learned: What COVID-19 Taught Us About Preparedness
An AI-enabled Analysis of 35 COVID-19 After-Action Reports
In emergency management, we often hear claims about preparing for past events, yet time and again, our collective action suggests otherwise. Locally, we may reflect on a flood or wildfire and see disaster plans evolve in response. But nationally? The same mistakes echo across after-action reviews (AARs), demonstrating the challenge of learning on a systemic level.
I believe that the future success of emergency management (as a field) and the emergency manager hinges on our ability to break this cycle. To thrive amidst rising expectations from the public and stakeholders, organizations must cultivate a deliberate process for learning from others.
This is no small task. Local experiences with disasters are relatively rare, offering limited opportunities for growth. Nationally, however, the frequency and scale of incidents present a wealth of untapped lessons. To succeed, we must learn how to translate the lessons learned in cities and counties across the country into meaningful improvements in our local capabilities.
To explore this, I analyzed 35 publicly available COVID-19 AARs, encompassing reports from state emergency management and public health agencies, city and county governments, hospital associations, federal entities, regional coalitions, and universities. Spanning over 9,600 pages, this dataset is far beyond the scope of manual review for most organizations or an individual, but a large language model (LLM) platform made this analysis possible. While the findings were not vetted exhaustively, my hope is that the sheer volume of reports helps mitigate the risk of inaccuracies and offers a robust foundation for identifying common themes.
The goal is simple. When someone asks, “What did we learn from COVID-19?” our response (as emergency managers) should be immediate. As an industry, we must be prepared to articulate:
What went wrong? What gaps were exposed that we had not anticipated?
What went well? Which strengths served us, and how can we build on them?
How are we acting on lessons learned? How are we addressing areas for improvement and capitalizing on our successes?
At the local level, the real test lies in applying these insights. Are national trends informing our exercise objectives? Are we stress-testing our plans against lessons identified in the AARs of others? In a world where public expectations are higher than ever, this commitment to learning isn’t optional—it’s foundational to building resilience and trust.
8 COVID-19 Lessons Observed
The COVID-19 pandemic presented an unparalleled challenge to emergency management, public health, and community resilience, testing the limits of existing plans and exposing systemic vulnerabilities. Unlike localized disasters, a global pandemic disrupts every aspect of society simultaneously, requiring jurisdictions to respond to prolonged uncertainty, rapidly evolving information, and widespread resource constraints.
Yet amidst the challenges, remarkable adaptability and innovation emerged as overarching successes. Jurisdictions demonstrated an extraordinary capacity to pivot and innovate, developing new solutions to meet unprecedented demands. From the implementation of cutting-edge data tracking and modeling tools to creative approaches in expanding virtual program delivery and enhancing operational effectiveness, the pandemic response showcased the power of adaptability in overcoming complex challenges. These efforts not only underscore the importance of flexibility in crisis management but also provide valuable lessons for building resilience against future large-scale emergencies.
A quick note on methodology: The following list of 8 observations provides an initial analysis of the key lessons learned from the COVID-19 pandemic, as identified by the LLM, focusing on critical aspects of emergency management, public health, and organizational response. After a series of prompts to identify trends from the 35 AARs, I selected the themes with the highest frequency of occurrence to examine further. There was some judgment used along the way, and emphasis was placed on topics that I thought were more important than others, but the overwhelming majority were identified by the tools.
1. Continuity of Operations Readiness
The COVID-19 pandemic tested the resilience of Continuity of Operations Plans (COOP) across the nation, revealing strengths in organizations with robust, adaptable frameworks while exposing significant gaps in plans not designed for prolonged crises.
Key Observations
Pre-Existing Strengths: Agencies with pre-established COOP frameworks effectively transitioned to remote work and maintained essential functions.
Adaptability Challenges: Many plans failed to account for the extended nature of the pandemic or remote work, focusing primarily on short-term disruptions.
Communication and Staffing: Internal communication inconsistencies and prolonged stress led to workforce burnout, highlighting the importance of consistent messaging and support mechanisms.
Actionable Insights
Revise COOP plans to account for long-term disruptions, emphasizing flexibility, remote work and in-office protocols, and mental health support for staff.
Pre-identify essential functions and ensure staffing models account for surge capacity and dual-role responsibilities.
2. Challenges with Existing Pandemic Plans and Guidance
The pandemic revealed systemic inadequacies in emergency preparedness plans, which were often outdated, overly general, or ill-suited for the scale and complexity of a public health crisis like COVID-19.
Key Observations
Inadequate Pandemic Plans: Jurisdictions identified their pandemic plans as high-level frameworks lacking actionable guidance.
Coordination Gaps: MOUs and pre-pandemic contracts struggled to meet evolving needs, leading to ad hoc structures that created inefficiencies.
Technology as a Differentiator: Investments in IT infrastructure prior to the pandemic significantly bolstered organizations’ response capabilities.
Actionable Insights
Update emergency plans to include dynamic, scenario-based guidance, addressing supply chain resilience, mass vaccination strategies, and school closures.
Strengthen coordination structures by reevaluating MOUs and fostering interagency collaboration through joint training and exercises.
3. Friction in Interagency Communication and Coordination
The pandemic exposed significant breakdowns in communication and unclear roles across agencies, both within a jurisdiction, as well as with response partners. This breakdown resulted in inefficiencies and strained relationships. Effective communication remains a cornerstone of emergency response.
Key Observations
Role Confusion: Discrepancies between public health departments and emergency management agencies created delays and frustrations.
Strained Relationships: Local jurisdictions often felt disconnected from state-level decision-making.
Trust in Relationships: Partnerships fostered through pre-pandemic preparedness activities enabled smoother communication and collaboration.
Actionable Insights
Clarify roles and responsibilities across agencies before crises through MOUs and cross-agency training. Additionally, have a process in place to establish or validate operational responsibilities at the onset of an incident.
Develop communication protocols that ensure alignment between state and local entities, fostering trust through clearly defined expectations.
Build and maintain partnerships through regular joint exercises and planning activities.
4. Previous Experience with Public Health Emergencies
Jurisdictions with prior experience in public health emergencies were better equipped to navigate the challenges of COVID-19, demonstrating the value of institutional knowledge and preparedness.
Key Observations
Lessons from H1N1: Some regions leveraged previous experiences to inform their COVID-19 response.
Infrastructure Gaps: Underfunded public health systems, outdated technology, and insufficient staffing hindered response efforts.
Importance of Relationships. Pre-existing relationships between agencies, organizations, and community partners played a vital role in facilitating coordination and resource sharing during the pandemic response.
Actionable Insights
Invest in public health infrastructure and staff training to build long-term capacity.
Document lessons from COVID-19 to create a repository of best practices for future crises.
5. Hindered Situational Awareness
Conflicting guidance and inconsistent messaging during the pandemic underscored the importance of situational awareness in maintaining effective and coordinated responses.
Key Observations
Confusion from Multiple Sources: Federal, state, and local inconsistencies hindered clarity and effectiveness.
Timeliness: Rapidly evolving situations required constant updates, but delays often created frustration.
Actionable Insights
Develop centralized systems for coordinating and disseminating information to reduce inconsistencies.
Train public information officers to manage dynamic communication demands effectively.
6. Complex Resource Management Requirements
The pandemic highlighted critical weaknesses in supply chains, resource tracking, and personnel management, emphasizing the need for robust planning and adaptability.
Key Observations
Supply Chain Strain: Scarcity of PPE and other essential resources disrupted response efforts.
Burnout and Staffing Gaps: Prolonged response efforts led to workforce fatigue and resource allocation challenges.
Simplicity in Crisis: Tools such as Google Sheets and Excel became vital for real-time resource tracking when more sophisticated systems faltered.
Actionable Insights
Establish diversified supply chains and maintain robust stockpiles of essential resources.
Develop resource-tracking systems that are scalable and user-friendly.
Incorporate technology training into preparedness plans to maximize utility during emergencies.
7. Duration of the Incident
The prolonged nature of the pandemic tested the limits of emergency management systems, highlighting the need for sustainable strategies for long-duration events.
Key Observations
Extended Burnout: Prolonged response periods strained personnel and resources.
Adaptive Strategies: Constant evolution of response plans was necessary to address new challenges.
Public Expectations: Sustaining elevated service levels long-term proved challenging for many jurisdictions.
Actionable Insights
Develop policies to address staffing needs and ensure safety during extended emergencies.
Incorporate long-duration scenarios into planning exercises to improve preparedness.
8. Public Communication
Effective communication was a critical success factor during the pandemic, but politicization, inconsistent messaging, and delayed information often undermined efforts.
Key Observations
Politicization: Public health messaging was often hindered by misinformation and polarization.
Timeliness and Accessibility: Regular updates through diverse channels helped maintain trust.
Centralized Structures: Joint Information Centers proved effective but required careful coordination to avoid conflicts.
Actionable Insights
Combat misinformation through proactive public education campaigns and partnerships with trusted community leaders.
Ensure all communication is clear, concise, and accessible across languages and formats.
Where Do You Go From Here?
The experiences outlined here are titled "lessons observed" because whether they become "lessons learned" depends on us. These challenges underscore the urgent need for improved preparedness planning, strengthened communication and coordination, a more resilient public health infrastructure, and addressing systemic issues like staffing shortages and PPE accessibility.
If we take to heart the successes and failures of pre-pandemic measures, we can chart a course toward stronger public health and emergency response systems. By addressing these shortcomings, jurisdictions will not only be better prepared to face future public health crises but also ensure a more equitable and effective response for all members of society.
The path forward requires collective action, reflection, and a commitment to turning observation into meaningful change.